Visual Programming: an Evolution and Alternate History
Research Article
An article detailing the history of what I call "visual programming", its foundations at Apple in the 80s via the Hypercard, an evolution into the educational space, and a possible alternate future through a lens of social engineering. In researching this article, I was able to combine my passions for usable tech, education, and accessibility.
Introduction: Defining the Technology of Visual Programming
Since the onset of the digital age, learning how to ‘code’, or program computers, has been at the forefront of education and business. The Atlantic cites that, between the years of 2005 and 2023, the total number of students studying computer science at a college level increased by a factor of 4 (Horowitch). In parallel to this development was the rise in visual programming languages that helped to serve as an analog to more traditional, written code. This is primarily seen in an educational setting, with a smaller focus on small business, but this area often ignores everyday consumers. By examining both the maturity and infancy conditions of visual, card or block based programming, one can imagine an alternative future in which the average user is intimately familiar with and more than capable of building their own software applications right from the palm of their hands.
Maturity Condition: Visual Programming used for Education
Today, the primary use case for visual, abstracted software development comes in the form of educational programs primarily aimed at children. As a result, these programming languages have given up the idea of replacing programming with instead being a necessary first step in a programmer's journey, not an end goal. A strong example of said technology is Scratch, a colorful, block-based IDE (Integrated Development Environment) aimed at helping children learn programming concepts like variables, loops, and conditional statements. Begun by MIT as a non-profit, Scratch allows “children from all walks of life (to) engage positively with technology as creators and problem solvers” (“Our Story.”).
At a slightly more complex stage of a programmer’s development sits MakeCode Arcade, developed by Microsoft as a way for students to experience game design in an accessible and approachable way. In addition to abstracting programming concepts into similar blocks, this software allows learners to click back-and-forth between their chunky pseudo-code into either JavaScript or Python (“Microsoft Makecode Arcade.”). While this is undoubtedly a way for young users to gain familiarity with these widely used languages, it also serves as a stark reminder that the real learning is waiting just around the corner.
In both of these cases, visual programming languages do not serve to replace text-based languages at a large scale, but rather as a jumping off point for learners to gain an interest and passion at a young age. As such, they serve an extremely important role in facilitating and empowering creative practices. A study done from 2020-2023 concluded that elementary school students who used Scratch “demonstrated improved problem-solving and creativity skills as observed by teachers” (Belessova et. al, 9). Not only does visual programming with an educational focus allow children to design colorful, interactive, and fun games and stories, but it also serves to inspire a lifelong journey in computer science. Due to both the enablement of creative practice and widespread acceptance these types of programs exhibit, they should be considered as examples of the maturity condition of visual programming.
Infancy Condition: Apple’s HyperCard System
According to the rules set forth by the tech receptivity interval, the infancy condition of visual, beginner friendly computer programming can be traced back to the distribution of HyperCard by Apple. Designed by Apple engineer Bill Atkinson and released in 1987, HyperCard was a way for early Macintosh users to create their own simple computer applications (Arbesman). Described by Bill as a “software erector set”, he claimed at the time its ability to allow specifically “non-programmers to put together interactive information” (“Hypercard.” The Computer Chronicles). With the underlying scripting language of HyperTalk slightly obscured away from the user, buttons, cards, and other visual elements gave users with no formal training the ability to intuitively understand the HyperCard ecosystem (“Apple introduces Hypercard”).
The similarities between HyperCard’s cards and stacks with the blocks, groups, and buttons of modern day Scratch and MakeCode Arcade are plain to see: by translating programming fundamentals into visual objects and natural language, these programs allow users to creatively generate computer projects with little to no experience. One main difference remains: the audience. While still relatively niche, HyperCard had the intention of introducing the mainstream audience to these concepts and allowing for creativity from the jump. However, modern implementations of this technology focus more on preparing younger users, rather than a wider audience, for their future in computer science. As will be discussed in the following section, the transition from this infancy to maturity conditions through the tech receptivity portal will change not only how this technology is used but also its support by large companies like Apple.
Infancy to Maturity Transformation: Following the Tech Receptivity Portal
Between the humble beginnings of HyperCard and the modern parallels of educational, block-based coding sit critical developments in the accessibility of programming and software development. Of particular interest is transition from beginner-friendly programming from a personal use case to a more commercial, business oriented acceptance. An example of such a programming language is Visual Basic. Developed by Microsoft and initially released in 1991, Visual Basic had similar goals to that of HyperCard, allowing users to write Windows programs in a more accessible manner, even featuring a drag and drop way to create UI elements (Lucas).
While more widely accepted and supported than the more niche HyperCard, Visual Basic still required a degree of programming knowledge to get started, not designed for anyone purchasing a Windows machine to “pick up and play”. This is inline with the growth in more traditional, text-based programming languages like JavaScript (Lucas).
Besides the aforementioned educational approach to a drag-and-drop concept, other modern parallels of visual programming exist in the form of business oriented approaches such as Bubble and Webflow, which allow users to generate web applications and websites, respectively, with relative ease (Arbesman). While these certainly have their own influence, they still show the lack of this middle-ground. In their article titled “The Hypercard Legacy”, author Jer Thorp defines this as an “easy to use, intuitive tool that will once again let average computer users make their own tools” (Thorp). As such, the educational platforms mentioned should be considered the true, more widely accepted maturity condition of the technology popularized by the HyperCard.
Everyone is a Developer: An Alternative Transformation of Visual Programming
As the acceptance of computing technology into the daily lives of so many users has grown exponentially since the HyperCard era Macintosh, the same growth has not been seen in the world of visual programming. While the many modern programs discussed are certainly successful implementations of this technology, they fall in either of the categories of educational tools or niche, business centered products. Examining specific aspects of the HyperCard, one can imagine an alternate history of events that would have led to a much more prominent use of these visual programming concepts. In projecting this alternative path, one first needs to consider the historical events that would lead to such a development. Notably, as newer versions of Apple’s home computer operating system were developed, HyperCard was supported less and less. Apple’s revolutionary, if limited, product ceased to exist on the market in 2004 (Arbesman).
In the years following HyperCard’s becoming defunct, smaller, more educational forms of visual, user friendly programming would take its place. However, none were supported directly by the computer manufacturers themselves, either from a software or hardware perspective, as the Hypercard was by Apple. Even software like MakeCode Arcade, while developed by Microsoft, didn’t allow users to directly make Windows apps or features and was once again abstracted away from this common use case. One has to wonder how the average user’s abilities and perception of computing technology would differ if companies like Apple had continued to evolve and support such a service. While there were many important historical events between the infancy and maturity conditions, one specific, near infamous presentation represents the change of perception on the everyday use of technology: The Introduction of the iPhone in 2007 by Steve Jobs.
At this event, Jobs pitched three completely new products from Apple: “A widescreen iPod with touch controls, a revolutionary mobile phone, and a breakthrough internet communications device” (Jobs). Looking back over 15 years later, it isn’t hard to see how the revolutionary combination of these three devices changed how average users interact with technology, with 90% of adults in the US citing having a smartphone in early 2024 (Gelle-Watnick). With the understanding of HyperCard and within the context of visual programming, one can’t help but to wonder if a fourth “device” was missing from this presentation: a new version of HyperCard that would have allowed iPhone users to make custom applications right from the palm of their hands (Thorp).
Working from the current maturity condition of programs like Scratch, one can see how a continued support of this sort of open source, beginner friendly programming environment directly from Apple would have had considerable impacts on the space of education. A modern HyperCard would allow young or inexperienced developers to build their own games and interactive stories with the software that is already built into their smartphones and tablets that they already own. A first-party approach to visual programming from Apple would not only have been yet another huge selling point for their new multi-device, but it would have undoubtedly been the automatic leader in the space of visual programming due to the install base alone. If all iPhone users had the visibility on such a platform in the same way that they are able to download a song, make a phone call, or search the web, the extent to which these programming concepts could become common knowledge is truly untapped.
To take this speculative design further, one can imagine what sort of impact an iPhone-centric version of HyperCard fundamentals would have on the App store, and by proxy, the vast array of smartphone applications themselves. According to a press release from Apple themselves, now CEO Tim Cook states, “‘For more than 15 years, the App Store has created incredible opportunity for app developers, entrepreneurs, and businesses of all sizes’” (“App Store in the U.S.”). The difference in language used here is subtle but paramount to that used by Bill Atkinson of the HyperCard. Replacing Cook’s ‘developers’ with Atkinson’s ‘non-programmers’ in a modern context would make an immense impact on not only how the average user understands the device that sits with them in their pocket at all times, but also their ability to facilitate the creative practice of developing applications.
Almost two decades from the introduction of the iPhone, the average user’s familiarity with computing technology has certainly skyrocketed, but the true understanding has not grown in this exponential way. One specific area this would have a large impact in is the empathy of design. If anyone with a smartphone has not only the ability but the confidence to produce their own smartphone application, be it strictly for personal use or for sharing online, the dominance of companies like Instagram and TikTok that rely heavily on social engineering to retain users would be put into question. Anti big-data projects such as Benjamin Grosser’s Facebook Demetricator that actively removes these psychological trappings from social media come to mind (Grosser). The reality of anyone with a smartphone being on the same playing field as current day app developers would have a devastating impact on these large companies and further highlight the negative impact their apps can cause. Essentially, users would have even more choice and autonomy in how they experience applications.
Concluding Thoughts: Improving Tech Literacy
While it can be enlightening to envision an alternative history, one cannot ignore the ways in which the current iterations of visual programming can be expanded on and improved to increase tech literacy. Although a user-friendly, Apple-backed, modern version of HyperCard may not be a reality, the underlying principles of giving consumers more power to modify, adapt, and understand smartphones would have a progressive impact in a world that is increasingly reliant on these devices. Shifting the scales of power back to the individual over the big tech company is a goal to strive towards.
References
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